Table 1 Literature review of biosecurity risks and biosecurity practises against HPAI A (H5N1) virus assessed at farm level

Isolation

• Chicken and ducks in different shelters at night [31]

Traffic control

• Designated vehicle for sending eggs to a vendor or market [32]

• Not allowing traders to enter the farm [33]

Sanitation

• Owners used a disinfectant to clean poultry areas [34]

• Farm staff washing their hands before handling birds [33]

Isolation

• Farm accessible to feral and wild animals [32]

• Footbath at entry to farm/shed [32]

• Dead crow seen at or near farm [35]

• Improperly dispose farm waste [36]

• Having contact with pigeons [31]

Traffic control

• Family and friends visiting [24]

• Exchanging eggtrays with market vendors [35]

• Receiving visitors on farm premises [37]

• Purchased live poultry/products [37]

• Farm workers live outside the premises [37]

• Owners bought live chickens from another backyard farm [34]

• Having a neighbouring poultry farm [33]

• High frequency of veterinary visits [38]

• Had visitors in their farm within the past month [36]